Feeling watched Understanding triggers of and responses to perceived surveillance in digital technologies

As digital technologies permeate daily life, individuals are continuously subject to the collection, processing, and storage of their personal data—a phenomenon known as dataveillance. Experiencing dataveillance practices triggers perceived surveillance: the feeling of being watched, listened to, or having one’s data recorded. This dissertation investigates perceived surveillance by examining individuals’ beliefs about dataveillance, the triggers and consequences of perceived surveillance, and the related individual and contextual factors.
Across four empirical studies using qualitative interview, survey, and experimental methods in the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, the dissertation maps people’s folk theories of dataveillance, identifying a dominant belief that companies “do everything to collect data for money,” largely shaped by experiences with data-driven advertising. Although individuals acknowledge certain benefits of dataveillance, they also perceive power asymmetries, ethical and privacy risks, and feelings of violation and creepiness. Perceived surveillance intensifies when people encounter accurate algorithmic profiling or advertising that uses sensitive or extensive types of personal data. These triggers not only increase privacy protection intentions but may also foster privacy cynicism. Moreover, perceived surveillance harms attitudes toward advertisements, brands, and platforms involved in data-driven advertising practices. The level of perceived surveillance further varies across individuals (e.g., by age, education, privacy concerns, and conspiracy mentality) and technological contexts (e.g., social media vs. smart home devices).
Overall, the dissertation advances understanding of how people experience dataveillance and highlights the need for more responsible data practices and regulatory protection to mitigate perceived surveillance and its negative consequences.