Whose (future) democracy? Examining inequalities in the development of adolescents’ political efficacy and the mediating role of political socialization

While democracy is meant for all, not all citizens feel equally confident to participate in it. This sense of confidence, often referred to as political efficacy, is important since it boosts citizens’ engagement with political democracy. The literature on political efficacy shows sharp sociodemographic inequalities in how self-efficacious citizens feel regarding political processes. These differences are already manifesting before adolescents formally take part in political democracy. Yet, there is limited understanding of how these inequalities develop over time and what accounts for these inequalities. In this paper, we analyze panel data among Dutch adolescents during their formative years (ages 12 to 16). The results demonstrate that internal and external political efficacy develop differently during adolescence; while internal political efficacy constantly rises, external political efficacy fluctuates more. In addition, while stark inequalities in internal political efficacy are already visible at age 12, these inequalities are less prominent in external political efficacy. The existing inequalities in internal and external efficacy, however, are substantially diminished by the time adolescents are 16 years old. Furthermore, political conversations with parents and peers correspond with growth in internal political efficacy but do not play a role in external political efficacy. Finally, contrary to our expectations, discussions with teachers play no role in the development of both political efficacy types. Our results show the stark distinct nature of internal and external political efficacy and that we should study them separately. Additionally, the results indicate that the sharp differences among adults are not yet solidified during adolescence.