Religions and liberal democracy: reflections on doctrinal, institutional and attitudinal learning

I start by distinguishing between principles and rights of tolerance on the one hand, and attitudes, virtues, practices, and regimes of toleration on the other. I claim that the latter are ultimately more important than principles of individual and collective tolerance, which are often in conflict with each other. I also argue that minimalist conceptions of ‘gritted teeth tolerance’ should not be infringed by attempts to impose more demanding ‘respect’-tolerance or ‘pluralistic’ tolerance. Gritted teeth tolerance and collective tolerance are part and parcel of any minimalist morality and of any decent polity. Liberal democratic constitutions in addition require more demanding but still minimalist equal respect. Learning toleration and liberal democracy by doing, that is by attitudinal and institutional learning, is at least as important as doctrinal learning. The relationship between religions and liberal democracy is not one of fundamental incompatibility but an open and context-specific one, depending on the specific nature of religions and of the polity. Finally, I show that different denominations of Christianity and different traditions of Islam provide the institutional, attitudinal and doctrinal opportunities to resolve the 'fundamentalist dilemma' that, in democratic decision making, their truths have the same right as errors and are treated as ‘opinions’. I also show that they have already learned or are learning to make their respective religions compatible with the priority of liberal democracy.