Make it worth it Understanding adolescent motivation and cognitive effort investment in education

This dissertation examined the factors influencing adolescents' motivation to invest cognitive effort in secondary education, addressing concerns about low academic engagement among adolescents. It aimed to answer three questions: how adolescents evaluate cognitive effort, the role of feedback and rewards in their willingness to invest effort, and how educational environments can enhance motivation and effort investment. Using a multi-method approach combining behavioral experiments, self-reports, diary methods, and neuroimaging, the studies identified key determinants of adolescent cognitive effort investment. Part I explored individual differences in adolescents' willingness to invest effort. Results showed that adolescents were more willing to engage in cognitively demanding tasks when they experienced autonomous motivation and competence. Situational factors, including feelings of autonomy, stress, social support, and competing opportunities such as paid work, influenced (daily) fluctuations in effort. Part II examined the impact of feedback and rewards on learning outcomes. Positive feedback and rewards improved learning, particularly under high-effort conditions. Neuroimaging data revealed that rewards modulated neural signals related to learning and effort, with stronger effects in younger adolescents and those placing lower value on effort. Part III developed and validated a shortened version of a well-known cognitive ability test for adolescents. This version provided a time-efficient, accurate alternative while reducing fatigue and maintaining motivation. Overall, the findings highlight the importance of fostering autonomous motivation, competence, and supportive educational environments while strategically incorporating feedback and rewards. The dissertation provides actionable recommendations for educators and policymakers to create optimal conditions that promote motivation, effort investment and academic engagement among adolescents.