"Hot" cognition and dual systems: Introduction, criticisms, and ways forward

Models distinguishing two types of processes or systems—typically one more automatic and/or affective-motivational, one more controlled and/or calculating-deliberative—are widespread in psychological science. However, such dual-process (or dual-system) models suffer from various problems and have been substantially criticized recently. In this chapter, we discuss these types of models, attempt to clarify terminology, discuss recent critiques at both empirical and theoretical levels, and suggest a more mechanistic explanation grounded in physiology and reinforcement learning of what makes "hot" processes hot. We discuss success stories and challenges related to these types of models in two illustrative fields, addiction and adolescent risk taking. Finally, we outline the basic ideas behind our R3 model—a reprocessing model grounded in reinforcement learning that conceptualizes levels of reflectivity as emergent states of one single system, rather than a separate process or system—as a possible way forward to address and overcome problems of dual-process models.