Introduction Studying Interconnected Practices of Fascism(s) and Populism(s) from a Transatlantic Perspective

Both Europe and Latin America have frequently been regarded as the cradle of populism. In recent decades, two strands of populism have dominated the media and the collective imagination, each associated with a different region. The populist socialism of the so-called Pink Tide governments in Latin America, embodied by former presidents such as Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Evo Morales in Bolivia, and Rafael Correa in Ecuador, is characterised by charismatic leadership, a focus on the redistribution of wealth, and an ethnically inclusive language that resonates with indigenous people and Afro-Latinos. In contrast, the more recent, predominantly right-wing populism in Europe, personified by Viktor Orbán in Hungary, Geert Wilders in the Netherlands, and Marine Le Pen in France, is marked by exclusionary ethno-nationalism, a nativist and anti-immigrant rhetoric, and economic laissez-faire. However, this opposition significantly reduces the complexity of the political landscape in both regions, where diverse forms of populism continue to evolve and intersect. Since the European debt crisis of 2008, left-wing populist movements such as Greece's Syriza and Spain's Podemos have been joined by several others, including Jean-Luc Mélenchon's La France Insoumise (France Unbowed) and Italy's Five Star Movement, each pushing back against austerity measures and the political status quo. Meanwhile, in Latin America, a wave of right-leaning populist leaders has come to prominence, including Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil, Javier Milei in Argentina, and Nayib Bukele in El Salvador. The latter, along with figures like Ecuador's president Daniel Noboa, represent new “big-tent” populist parties that defy easy categorisation on the traditional ideological spectrum. Noboa, for example, aligns himself with the social policies of Brazil's Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, yet has also implemented mano dura or hardline policies against violence, leading to increased militarisation of his country's law enforcement – raising concerns among human rights observers, particularly regarding the impact on vulnerable groups who are often rendered “disposable” or “ungrievable” through discursive and affective frames of de-subjectivation, as illustrated by the rhetoric about Mexico's War on Drugs, the securitisation of the U.S.-Mexican border, and the instrumentalisation of the Haitian and Venezuelan refugee crises and the Central American transmigration. Both the fallout of the 2008 global financial crisis and the growing public perception of security threats have contributed to the rise of leaders who exhibit authoritarian tendencies and promote divisive politics that evoke the ghosts of fascism.